Abstract Transgender individuals have biological gender identities that differ from the sex recorded at birth. To proceed with medical therapy, a diagnosis of gender incongruence must be made. Although not…

Abstract Puberty in humans is defined as the period of becoming capable of reproducing. It is marked by maturation of the genital organs, development of secondary sex characteristics, acceleration in…

Abstract Sex development plays a fundamental role in determining the physical attributes of our bodies, the structure of our brains, our behavioral tendencies, and our self-concept. Understanding the development of…

Abstract The success of pregnancy depends on (1) fertilization and successful implantation of the developing embryo into the endometrium; (2) development and function of the placenta; (3) adaptation of maternal…

Abstract The endometrium develops within the uterus, originating from the urogenital ridge early in development. This mucosal lining consists of epithelial and stromal cells invested with a specialized vasculature that…

Abstract The function of the hypothalamo-pituitary-testicular-accessory organ axis is to ensure normal androgenization (including embryonic, infantile, pubertal, and adult sexual maturation), male sexual behavior, and reproductively competent sperm output. Thus…

Abstract The relationship between a living organism and its environment is based on a tightly regulated balance between symbiosis and competition. The complexity of an organism is directly correlated to…

Abstract Industrial chemical production has increased over the last few decades. In that same time frame, a number of adverse reproductive and health conditions have increased, including infertility, early puberty,…

Abstract As men age, their reproductive functions, both spermatogenesis and testosterone production, diminish, but slowly and to a relatively small degree. The fall in testosterone appears to be the result…