Using SGLT2 Inhibitors in Special Populations
(1) Glasgow Royal Infirmary, Glasgow, UK 4.1 Introduction Type 2 diabetes is becoming a common problem in young obese people and, in some parts of the world, is as…
ENDOCRINOLOGY
Overview of Type 2 Diabetes
Figure 1.1 Global prevalence of diabetes (Reproduced with permission from the International Diabetes Federation [1] ©IDF) 1.2 Diagnostic Criteria for Diabetes The diagnostic criteria from the World Health Organization (WHO)…
An Ensemble Perspective of Aging-Related Hypoandrogenemia in Men
Fig. 16.1 Simplified schema of the GnRH-LH-testosterone (hypothalamo-pituitary-Leydig cell) axis with feedback (−, inhibitory) and feedforward (+, stimulatory) interactions mediated via specific interface (dose-response) functions Fig. 16.2 Primary loci of postulated regulatory…
The Undescended Testis
Fig. 10.1 Undescended testes along the pathway of normal testicular descent into the scrotum, and ectopic locations. Illustration by Dr. James Grubola, Professor of Fine Arts, University of Louisville Congenital cryptorchidism…
Exercise and Male Hypogonadism: Testosterone, the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Testicular Axis, and Exercise Training
Fig. 13.1 Illustrated are the factors that influence circulating testosterone levels in normal men at rest and in response to a physical exercise bout. This figure is based upon the information…
Congenital Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism in Males: Clinical Features and Pathophysiology
Fig. 5.1 Schematic presentation of the activity of the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis across the life cycle. During the neonatal window, pulsatile GnRH stimulates LH and FSH secretion which induce adult levels of…
The Human Leydig Cell
Fig. 2.1 Fetal testis. a Fetal mouse: low magnification of a semi-thin section showing seminiferous tubules (ST) and interstitial tissue (I). b Fetal mouse: higher magnification of (a) showing gonocytes (G)…
Neuroendocrine Control of Human Testicular Function
Fig. 1.1 Model depicting the role of ARC KNDy neurons in the generation of pulsatile GnRH release. KNDy neurons in the ARC nucleus form an interconnected population with their axons and/or…
Hypogonadism in Males with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
Fig. 7.1 Adrenal steroid synthesis. StAR steroidogenic autoregulatory protein; SCC (cholesterol) side-chain cleavage enzyme; 3β-HSD 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase; 17β-HSD 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase Prevalence Most enzyme deficiencies that cause CAH are extremely rare, except…
Male Hypogonadism and Liver Disease
Causes of chronic liver disease Prevalence in United States Associated type of hypogonadism Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) 11% Unclear, but likely more secondary Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) 2% Both…
