Individuals infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) may manifest symptoms and signs of endocrine disorders or may present with incidental abnormal endocrine laboratory values…
Introduction Overall, cancers of the endocrine system comprise 3.1% of the 1,806,590 new cancer cases estimated for 2020 . The majority of cases (95%) are attributed to thyroid cancer, which…
Hyperglycemia: acute versus chronic Hyperglycemia is defined as an elevated plasma glucose (PG) concentration. Hyperglycemia can be classified as transient (acute) or sustained (chronic). Chronic hyperglycemia constitutes diabetes mellitus (which…
Background Two of the most abundant lipid components in plasma are cholesterol and triglycerides (TG); however, both are virtually insoluble in water. To be transported to various tissues, these lipids…
Introduction The body must be protected from hypoglycemia because severe acute hypoglycemia can cause seizures, coma, and even death . On the other hand, chronic hyperglycemia is toxic to blood…
The adrenal gland produces glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, sex hormones, and catecholamines. Deficiency or excess of any of these hormones results in clinical disease. Aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid that regulates sodium and water…
Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis Reproductive endocrinology includes the hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and the adrenal glands. The hormones necessary for proper reproductive function include gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating…
Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract can be broadly classified as gastrointestinal NETs (GI-NETs) also referred to as previously and more commonly as carcinoid tumors and pancreatic NETs…
The thyroid gland The thyroid gland is one of the largest endocrine glands in the body and is located immediately below the larynx and anterior to the upper part of…
The primary function of a clinical laboratory is to provide accurate and clinically relevant data for the diagnosis of medical conditions in patients. Laboratory data can also be used to…
