The life span of prehistoric humans was about 30 years old. Our historical knowledge of early humans’ death and afterlife beliefs and practices have been developed through archeological finds of early human remains. Death came to the prehistoric humans in the way of illness and/or injury. The survival of children was poor as a result of the lack of nutrition and/or illness and rudimentary medical practices. Adults perished as a result of the same issues with the addition of predators both animals and other humans.

Death was an accepted part of life to the prehistoric human because of the high rate of death as a result of illnesses, accidents, and the attack of predators. The process of dying was often painful and quick. Cro-Magnon humans had a concept of death and an anticipation of life after death. They buried their dead in or near their caves or huts along with the dead person’s tools, weapons, jewelry, and other favorite possessions. The dead were also attired in the favorite formal clothing. The burial of the person, along with her or his belongings, are considered to be prehistoric humankind’s anticipation of needing these things in life after death (San Filippo 1998). Many primitives believed that death was a change in existence in which the essence, the soul, of the individual passes from this realm to another realm.

The dying person was often prepared for death by various pre-death rituals and funeral practices. There was a fear that if the dead were not treated properly in their death and final disposition the departed spirit would interfere in the lives of the living.

Funeral practices were not based upon the containment of potential illness to the living due to decomposition of the corpse but on the fear of offending the spirit of the dead or the gods. Funeral rituals therefore were often designed to honor the dead or “to offset fears about the potential malevolence of the dead towards the living” (DeSpelder and Strickland 1983, p. 36). The primitive corpse was buried in the belief that it would someday grow again like a plant (Aiken 2000).

The expected life span of a person born into the ancient world was approximately 35 years old. Tombs and other final resting places provide a view into the dying, death, and afterlife beliefs and practices of ancient societies. Ancient Hebrews recognized the existence of a soul but did not dwell on life after death. Ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans had an expressive perspective toward death and the existence of life after death and their practices of dealing with the dying and death reflected their perspectives. The Greek and Roman perspectives of death were similar as a result of ancient Roman culture incorporating aspects of early Greek culture into Roman culture.

Ancient Egyptians focused a great deal of time, energy, and resources in order to prepare for the next life. They perceived life as a dream that was quickly over and thought that death was eternal. Ancient Egyptians believed that in order to enjoy eternity in another life, the body of the deceased had to survive into eternal life (San Filippo 1998).

Egyptians believed that humans had a dual soul, “Ka” and “Ba.” One soul, “Ka” remained close to the body after death. The “Ba” soul was a living soul that resided in the spiritual domain. The Egyptians believed that the dead crossed the river of death to the House of Osiris, the god of the dead, where they were to spend eternity. To guide the dead on their journey to the House of Osiris, the Book of the Dead was buried with the deceased. Entrance into eternity was dependent on judgment of Osiris of the individual’s life (Assmann 2005).

The Egyptians also believed the preservation of bodies provided for a happy afterlife. Additionally, they believed that “Ba” survived by preserving the body of the dead through mummification in order for “Ba” to be able to recognize the body upon the soul “Ba’s” return. A widely used method of mummification in ancient Egypt was the preserving the dead by leaving their remains in the hot, dry deserts of Egypt to mummify.

Ancient Greeks perceived death as a release of the soul from the body. The soul, which was believed to be part of the mind, was believed to be immortal. It was considered that the soul lived before the birth of the body and would live again after the death of the body in another life. Death was feared by some in ancient Greece out of fear of the repercussions by the gods and goddess or a spirit of someone who died. Others, in contrast, saw death as passage to another existence and a natural occurrence to be embraced. Socrates and Plato believed that ending your life when your usefulness ended was an acceptable practice. Plato wrote,

It has been proved to us by experience that if we would have pure knowledge of anything we must be quit of the body the soul in herself must behold things in themselves: and then we shall attain the wisdom which we desire, and of which we say that we are lovers; not while we live, but after death; for if while in company with the body, the soul cannot have pure knowledge, one of two things follows either knowledge is not to be attained at all, or, if at all, after death. (Plato, trans. 1976, p. 204)

Socrates’ death provides an example of how Greeks wanted to view death as the end of this existence and not to be afraid when it happened. When Socrates was condemned to die for supposedly corrupting the young by asking too many questions, he accepted death gracefully. In the dialogue “Phaedo,” Plato recorded Socrates’ final evening with his friends. After ingesting the poison hemlock, Socrates commented to his friends,

And therefore I go on my way rejoicing, and not only, but every other man who believes that his mind has been made ready and he is in a manner purified. And what is purification but the separation of the soul from the body…. I have been told a man should die in peace. (Plato 1976, p. 277)

Socrates then lay down and covered himself with a sheet. Just before he died, thinking of the life he was leaving, he sat up and addressed a friend, “Crito, I owe a cock to Asclepius; will you remember to pay the debt?” and then he lay back down and died (Plato, trans. 1976, p. 278). This readiness and matter-of-fact approach to death by Socrates illustrates how ancient Greeks considered death to be a passage to greater existence than this life, and that one should prepare for death just as one would prepare for any journey. Socrates’ remembrance that he owed Asclepius a debt is similar to how one may remember an unfinished task before one embarks on any journey (San Filippo 1998).

Some Greeks believed the soul was reincarnated many times until the soul was pure. Other Greeks believed in an active afterlife with a connection to the living by providing favor or ill will upon the living. Many Greeks believed that after death the soul of the person continued to live in the “underworld” (Edmonds 2013).

Early Roman beliefs in regard to death, dying, and an afterlife were similar to early Greek beliefs. The dead were either buried or cremated. Poor citizens were often buried in a common grave, without a ceremony, and at night. However, the more prominent citizens were mourned with style and pomp. Their bodies were laid out for people to come by and pay their last respects.

The Greeks and Romans shared the belief in the dead souls being ferried across the river Styx. The Romans also placed coins on the dead person’s mouth to pay the boatman, Charon, who transported the dead across the river Styx. The river Styx, in Greek mythology, was the river that separated the living world and the underworld called Hades.

Ancient Greeks and Romans believed that a proper burial and respect for the gods was important to avoid the ghosts of the dead coming back and/or the gods interjecting themselves into the living world. Out of fear of reprisal by and offended god or goddess, ancient Greeks followed strict rituals to appease the gods and the spirits of the dead. Additionally, Toynbee comments,

All Roman funerary practice was influenced by two basic notions – first, that death brought pollution and demanded from the survivors acts of purification and expiation; secondly, that to leave a corpse unburied had unpleasant repercussions on the fate of the departed soul. (Toynbee 1971, p. 43)

The burial placement of the dead had some significance. The practice of burying the deceased facing east began as a practice of having the dead face the rising sun (Decker 2010).

Greeks and Romans believed that one’s immortality was only assured by the memories of those of the living world. As a result of this belief, monument, tombs, and earth mounds were erected to remember the deceased. Many early Romans would have their tombs erected long before their death. Later in Roman history the dead were often cremated and their cremains would be placed in urns and buried or placed in catacombs. For those who were cremated, often a finger was removed prior to cremation, as part of the practice “os resectum,” in order to have a body part to bury (Kyle 1994). Some ancient Greeks and Romans pacified the potential evil that departed spirits might make on the living by providing food for the dead. In some cases, feeding tubes were inserted into the grave, sarcophagus or the urn to provide food and wine to the deceased (Toynbee 1971).

The Middle Ages are considered to have been from the sixth to the thirteenth century. The “Dark Ages” began the Middle Ages. Similar to ancient humans, the expected life span of a person born into the Middle Ages was approximately 35 years old. Death was common and often violent during the Middle Ages. The French historian Philippe Ariès, in his seminal study of death and dying across human history, Western Attitudes towards Death from the Middle Ages to the Present, identified three periods of development concerning understandings of death in post-antiquity Western culture (Ariès 1974). The first period is considered to be between the sixth and the early twelfth century, the time of the Dark Ages. The second period is identified as being between the later twelfth century and the seventeenth century. This includes the periods known as the Renaissance and the Reformation. The third period began toward the late seventeenth century and has run through the twentieth century. Attitudes toward death changed significantly during this final period and can be subdivided into two periods: the seventeenth century through the nineteenth century, and the twentieth century (San Filippo 1998). Ariès additionally considered that people’s beliefs and practices concerning death are changed over time based upon their experiences and understanding of death. Ariès named these changes in death beliefs and practices as periods in which death was considered to be a “tame death,” “one’s own death,” “thy death,” and “forbidden or wild death” (Ariès 1974; Wood and Williamson 2004).

Ariès considered the “tame death” period to a period in the late antiquity and early Middle Ages. According to Wood & Williamson, the Middle Ages, was a period

when material conditions were unimaginably horrid and death was a common event. War, famine, pestilence, and childbirth made living a perilous endeavor. A span of 30 years often constituted a full life. The decline of the Roman Empire returned urban populations to the familiarity of towns and villages. Roads declined, and people did not travel long distances, usually living in one location for the entirety of their lives. If death was “tame,” it was because people died frequently, in plain view of their townsmen or fellow villagers; in such times, it would have been difficult to die a private death. (Wood and Williamson 2004, p. 4)

During the Middle Ages, effective sanitation and hygiene practices were not practiced to control disease due to the rudimentary medical knowledge of public safety and welfare. The Middle Ages was a period of strife with wars and plagues an everyday part of life. The multiple wars of this era were the Crusades, the Hundred Years’ War, the French War of Religion, the 30 Years’ War, and the Deluge (A8). The Crusades provided the clash between the Christian and Islamic faith. During the Middle Ages, until the Reformation, the Roman Catholic Church and its teaching were the accepted source of knowledge and hope concerning dying, death, and afterlife beliefs. A great part of society was controlled by religious teachings of the Church and these teachings were used to control social and personal behavior.

Death was accepted as enviable but was still feared during the Middle Ages. People dealt with death as a community. Medical practice during the Middle Ages was rudimentary and therefore death was often prolonged and painful. This prolonged approach to death allowed the dying to prepare for their death by putting their affairs in order and confessing their misdeeds and sins before they died (Bynum and Freedman 2012). Medieval people believed that individuals had a premonition of their own death as they were in the dying process. Sudden, non-violent or non-medical related deaths were often viewed superstitiously since they did not follow the painful process of dying which was normal for so many people in the Middle Ages. The fears associated with dying and death heightened during the mid-1300s as a result of the Black Death pandemic that killed an estimated 75-200 million people in Europe (Health 2001).

According to Ariès, during the “tame death” period there were four basic characteristics associated with a “tame” death (Ariès 1974):

1. 1.
   
   
   

   
   

   The dying person would be in a supine position, often on a bed. Christians usually lay face-up toward heaven.
   
   
    
   
   
2. 2.
   
   
   

   
   

   The dying person presided over her/his own death. The dying person was aware of the religious rituals and customs. The dying person controlled when the priest would be called and when family members could pay their respects.
   
   
    
   
   
3. 3.
   
   
   

   
   

   Death was not hidden. It was a public event with family and friends, including children, present with the dying person. It was acceptable to be surrounded by family and friends.
   
   
    
   
   
4. 4.
   
   
   

   
   

   Death was considered normal and there were no “theatrics” or a “great show of emotions” on the part of the friends and family.
   
   
    

In the Middle Ages, a person’s grave was only temporary. Because the graveyards became overcrowded, after the body had decomposed the bones of the deceased were exhumed and stored in a charnel house close to the cemetery (Dizdar 2010). A charnel house was a building or vault that housed the bones of the dead and was usually close to a church.